GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS Introduction to Gravimetric Analysis: Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative method in which a substance is converted into an insoluble precipitate, separated, dried, and weighed to determine its amount in the original sample. Since it is based on mass…
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS What is Volumetric Analysis: Volumetric analysis is a laboratory method used to determine the quantity of a chemical present in a solution by measuring the volume of a standard solution required to react completely with it. This method…
Impurities in Pharmaceuticals Introduction: In pharmaceuticals, impurities are unwanted substances present in a drug product other than the intended active ingredient. These substances may arise during manufacturing, processing, storage, or packaging of drugs. Impurities can originate from raw materials, chemical…
Introduction: An error is the difference between the value measured during an analysis and the true value of a substance. Errors cannot be completely eliminated, even when skilled analysts use advanced analytical instruments. However, by understanding the nature and sources…
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Humans are sexually reproducing, unisexual, and viviparous (development of the embryo inside the body of the parent). Both males and females have distinct reproductive organs (gonads), reproductive ducts, and accessory structures. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The male reproductive system…
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system consists of glands secreting hormones essential for maintenance of homeostasis throughout the body. Hormones are chemical messengers that act to control and coordinate different functions of tissues and organs. Classification of Glands Major Endocrine Glands:…
MICTURITION Micturition is the process of emptying the urinary bladder. When 300-400 ml of urine has been collected in the urinary bladder, the afferent autonomic nerve fibres in the bladder wall which are sensitive to stretch are stimulated. MICTURITION REFLEX…
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM (RAAS) The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) is essentially required for regulating blood volume and systemic vascular resistance. The combined effect of these two measures influences cardiac output and arterial pressure. Renin (a proteolytic enzyme released by the kidneys into…
PHYSIOLOGY OF URINE FORMATION The cells of the body produce nitrogenous wastes which are transported via blood to the kidneys. Here they are converted into urine by three processes: 1) Ultrafiltration (Glomerular Filtration), 2) Tubular Reabsorption, and 3) Tubular Secretion.…
URINARY SYSTEM The urinary system is formed by organs responsible for converting excess fluid and other substances into urine, its filtration, and its excretion from the body. These organs include kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Urine excretes excess minerals,…